This commit implements stack barriers to minimize the amount of
stack re-scanning that must be done during mark termination.

Currently the GC scans stacks of active goroutines twice during every
GC cycle: once at the beginning during root discovery and once at the
end during mark termination. The second scan happens while the world
is stopped and guarantees that we've seen all of the roots (since
there are no write barriers on writes to local stack
variables). However, this means pause time is proportional to stack
size. In particularly recursive programs, this can drive pause time up
past our 10ms goal (e.g., it takes about 150ms to scan a 50MB heap).

Re-scanning the entire stack is rarely necessary, especially for large
stacks, because usually most of the frames on the stack were not
active between the first and second scans and hence any changes to
these frames (via non-escaping pointers passed down the stack) were
tracked by write barriers.

To efficiently track how far a stack has been unwound since the first
scan (and, hence, how much needs to be re-scanned), this commit
introduces stack barriers. During the first scan, at exponentially
spaced points in each stack, the scan overwrites return PCs with the
PC of the stack barrier function. When "returned" to, the stack
barrier function records how far the stack has unwound and jumps to
the original return PC for that point in the stack. Then the second
scan only needs to proceed as far as the lowest barrier that hasn't
been hit.

For deeply recursive programs, this substantially reduces mark
termination time (and hence pause time). For the goscheme example
linked in issue #10898, prior to this change, mark termination times
were typically between 100 and 500ms; with this change, mark
termination times are typically between 10 and 20ms. As a result of
the reduced stack scanning work, this reduces overall execution time
of the goscheme example by 20%.

Fixes #10898.

The effect of this on programs that are not deeply recursive is
minimal:

name                   old time/op    new time/op    delta
BinaryTree17              3.16s ± 2%     3.26s ± 1%  +3.31%  (p=0.000 n=19+19)
Fannkuch11                2.42s ± 1%     2.48s ± 1%  +2.24%  (p=0.000 n=17+19)
FmtFprintfEmpty          50.0ns ± 3%    49.8ns ± 1%    ~     (p=0.534 n=20+19)
FmtFprintfString          173ns ± 0%     175ns ± 0%  +1.49%  (p=0.000 n=16+19)
FmtFprintfInt             170ns ± 1%     175ns ± 1%  +2.97%  (p=0.000 n=20+19)
FmtFprintfIntInt          288ns ± 0%     295ns ± 0%  +2.73%  (p=0.000 n=16+19)
FmtFprintfPrefixedInt     242ns ± 1%     252ns ± 1%  +4.13%  (p=0.000 n=18+18)
FmtFprintfFloat           324ns ± 0%     323ns ± 0%  -0.36%  (p=0.000 n=20+19)
FmtManyArgs              1.14µs ± 0%    1.12µs ± 1%  -1.01%  (p=0.000 n=18+19)
GobDecode                8.88ms ± 1%    8.87ms ± 0%    ~     (p=0.480 n=19+18)
GobEncode                6.80ms ± 1%    6.85ms ± 0%  +0.82%  (p=0.000 n=20+18)
Gzip                      363ms ± 1%     363ms ± 1%    ~     (p=0.077 n=18+20)
Gunzip                   90.6ms ± 0%    90.0ms ± 1%  -0.71%  (p=0.000 n=17+18)
HTTPClientServer         51.5µs ± 1%    50.8µs ± 1%  -1.32%  (p=0.000 n=18+18)
JSONEncode               17.0ms ± 0%    17.1ms ± 0%  +0.40%  (p=0.000 n=18+17)
JSONDecode               61.8ms ± 0%    63.8ms ± 1%  +3.11%  (p=0.000 n=18+17)
Mandelbrot200            3.84ms ± 0%    3.84ms ± 1%    ~     (p=0.583 n=19+19)
GoParse                  3.71ms ± 1%    3.72ms ± 1%    ~     (p=0.159 n=18+19)
RegexpMatchEasy0_32       100ns ± 0%     100ns ± 1%  -0.19%  (p=0.033 n=17+19)
RegexpMatchEasy0_1K       342ns ± 1%     331ns ± 0%  -3.41%  (p=0.000 n=19+19)
RegexpMatchEasy1_32      82.5ns ± 0%    81.7ns ± 0%  -0.98%  (p=0.000 n=18+18)
RegexpMatchEasy1_1K       505ns ± 0%     494ns ± 1%  -2.16%  (p=0.000 n=18+18)
RegexpMatchMedium_32      137ns ± 1%     137ns ± 1%  -0.24%  (p=0.048 n=20+18)
RegexpMatchMedium_1K     41.6µs ± 0%    41.3µs ± 1%  -0.57%  (p=0.004 n=18+20)
RegexpMatchHard_32       2.11µs ± 0%    2.11µs ± 1%  +0.20%  (p=0.037 n=17+19)
RegexpMatchHard_1K       63.9µs ± 2%    63.3µs ± 0%  -0.99%  (p=0.000 n=20+17)
Revcomp                   560ms ± 1%     522ms ± 0%  -6.87%  (p=0.000 n=18+16)
Template                 75.0ms ± 0%    75.1ms ± 1%  +0.18%  (p=0.013 n=18+19)
TimeParse                 358ns ± 1%     364ns ± 0%  +1.74%  (p=0.000 n=20+15)
TimeFormat                360ns ± 0%     372ns ± 0%  +3.55%  (p=0.000 n=20+18)

Change-Id: If8a9bfae6c128d15a4f405e02bcfa50129df82a2
Reviewed-on: https://go-review.googlesource.com/10314Reviewed-by: Russ Cox <rsc@golang.org>
Run-TryBot: Austin Clements <austin@google.com>
TryBot-Result: Gobot Gobot <gobot@golang.org>